Approaches to enhance antimicrobial penetration in biofilms have been evaluated by different research groups. Alipour et al. (2009) reported that co-administration of DNase and alginate lyase significantly enhance activity of certain aminoglycosides in reducing biofilm check details growth and cystic fibrosis sputum bacterial counts of P. aeruginosa (Alipour et al., 2009). Lipopeptide biosurfactant produced by Bacillus licheniformis was shown to significantly enhance the efficacy of antibiotics in killing E. coli biofilms (Rivardo et al., 2011). Micelle-encapsulated antibiotics and antibiotic-encapsulated

biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles are also reported to efficiently kill biofilm cells (Jones, 2005; Cheow et al., 2010). Efflux pump systems are involved in biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance (Pamp et al., 2008; Zhang & Mah, 2008). Inactivation of efflux systems by efflux pump inhibitors was reported to abolish bacterial biofilm formation or enhance antimicrobial activity against biofilms (Kvist et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2010). In recent years, phages are suggested as alternatives to antibiotics for the treatment of biofilms. Phages are inexpensive and specific against a host or host range, and will not affect the normal microflora of the environment where they are applied. A T7-like lytic phage against P. aeruginosa isolated from Pavana river water has been shown to prevent

and disperse biofilms of P. aeruginosa (Ahiwale et al., 2011). Carson et al. (2010) reported that lytic bacteriophages could eradicate Olaparib purchase established

biofilms of Proteus mirabilis and E. coli, and impregnation of hydrogel-coated Guanylate cyclase 2C catheter sections with these lytic bacteriophages could prevent biofilm formation on catheter biomaterials (Carson et al., 2010). Some phages also possess polysaccharide-degrading enzymes that can rapidly destroy the integrity of biofilms (Suthereland et al., 2004). A P. aeruginosa-specific phage was isolated and shown to produce alginase to depolymerize the alginate capsule from the mucoid cystic fibrosis isolates of P. aeruginosa (Glonti et al., 2010). This alginase might accelerate phagocytic uptake of bacteria and perturb bacterial biofilms of patients with cystic fibrosis. An engineered bacteriophage which expresses a biofilm-degrading enzyme during infection was reported to simultaneously attack the biofilm cells and the EPS matrix (Lu & Collins, 2007). A cell-wall-degrading enzyme SAL-2 from a new podoviridae S. aureus bacteriophage (SAP-2) was cloned and expressed by Son et al. (2010). The SAL-2 enzyme has specific lytic activity against S. aureus with a minimum inhibitory concentration of about 1 μg mL−1 and can efficiently remove S. aureus biofilms (Son et al., 2010). Phages are also reported to improve the conventional antimicrobial treatment to biofilm related infections. Verma et al.