As noted above, TBI patients can reconstruct aspects of the traumatic experience that were not adequately encoded during the period of impaired consciousness. This scenario raises the possibility that treating PTSD after TBI will require adaptive reconstruction of this narrative in a way that facilitates adaptation rather than retraumatization. For example, a patient who reconstructs their memory of a car

accident in which they were excessively responsible for someone’s death will have marked depressive responses relative to a patient who reconstructs the memory in a way that accepts a more reasonable level of responsibility. Alternately, a patient can Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical be encouraged to tolerate a level of uncertainty insofar as there is permanent amnesia of some aspect of the event; inability to tolerate Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical uncertainty is linked to enhanced anxiety and worry.120 One of the challenges for treating PTSD after TBI is the patient’s ability to either reconstruct events in a coherent and adaptive way or to accept the uncertainty of how events transpired when they suffered their

TBI. The extent to which a person with TBI needs to reconstruct the trauma narrative to recover from PTSD has yet to be empirically determined. As noted above, several large-scale studies have reported that MTBI is associated with increased risk for PTSD.59,92,78 One possibility for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical this observation may be that

people who sustain a MTBI do not have a coherent narrative of their traumatic experience because of the impaired consciousness secondary to the brain injury, and this may impede their capacity to contextualize the experience in their autobiographical memory base. A second implication for PTSD treatment Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical after TBI is that the treatment of choice for PTSD involves traumafocused exposure therapy.121 This treatment is based on extinction Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical learning, which occurs when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented in the absence of an aversive outcome, thereby facilitating new learning that Oxygenase the stimulus is no longer signaling threat. In the context of therapy, presenting memories or reminders of the trauma to the patient in the safety of therapy typically leads to symptom reduction. Exposure can either be imaginai, which involves focusing on one’s memories of the traumatic event, or in vivo, in which approaches and remains with reminders that usually trigger anxiety about the event. On the premise that fear conditioning and extinction still occurs in the context of TBI, it would seem that that exposure-based therapy is the indicated intervention for PTSD Stem Cells antagonist following TBI. Supporting this conclusion is evidence in one controlled trial of patients with acute stress disorder following MTBI that CBT effectively treated PTSD symptoms to a similar extent as when applied to non -TBI samples.