These results provide evidence for a hypothesis of improper inhibitory control as a common mechanism underpinning abnormal visual and visuomotor processes in this mental disorder. (C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier

Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei is one of the most important economic species in shrimp farming and are frequently exposed to multiple stressors (including temperature) in aquaculture. The differential expression of seven genes encoding antioxidant enzymes and stressor biomarkers was investigated by real-time quantitative PCR in haemocytes and see more hepatopancreas and gill extracted from L vannamei following acute temperature stress. Temperature stress induced CAT, GST, ferritin and HSP60 gene expression in gills. Western blot results also revealed that HSP60 was induced in the same tissue after acute temperature stress. Heat stress resulted in an increase in most examined genes in haemocytes (excluding HSP60) suggesting haemocytes may be an early response tissue in acute temperature stress. GST was significantly

up-regulated in haemocytes (to up to 16.4 fold at 22 degrees C and 71.8 fold at 28 degrees C, respectively) during exposure to heat stress. In addition, MnSOD was more Torin 1 nmr strongly induced in haemocytes and hepatopancreas (to up to 273.8 fold and 115.8 fold, respectively) after exposure to 28 degrees C from 15 degrees C implying their important role in antioxidant protection in response to heat stress. The transcriptional responses of these genes to temperature stress will provide the basis for a multi-biomarker system that could be used for the biomonitoring of aquatic environments. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The lipid kinase PIK3C3 (also known as VPS34) regulates multiple aspects of endo-membrane trafficking processes. PIK3C3 is widely expressed by neurons in the CNS, and its catalytic product PI3P is enriched in dendritic spines. Here we generated a line of conditional mutant mouse in which Pik3c3 however is specifically deleted in hippocampal

and in small subsets of cortical pyramidal neurons using the CaMKII-Cre transgene. We found that Pik3c3-deficiency initially causes loss of dendritic spines accompanied with reactive gliosis, which is followed by progressive neuronal degeneration over a period of several months. Layers III and IV cortical neurons are more susceptible to Pik3c3-deletion than hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, in aged conditional Pik3c3 mutant animals, there are extensive gliosis and severe secondary loss of wild type neurons. Our analyses show that Pik3c3 is essential for CNS neuronal homeostasis and Pik3c3(flox/flox); CaMKII-Cre mouse is a useful model for studying pathological changes in progressive forebrain neurodegeneration. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of IBRO.

Annual vaccination for influenza and receipt of pneumococcal

vaccination for participants 65 years of age or older rose by 4.5 percentage points (95% CI, 0.8 to 8.2) and 6.9 percentage points (95% CI, 3.4 to 10.4), respectively, and daily glucose monitoring increased by 12.7 percentage points (95% CI, 10.3 to 15.1).

Conclusions

Although there were improvements in risk-factor control and adherence to preventive practices from 1999 to 2010, tobacco use remained high, and almost half of U.S. adults with diabetes did not meet the recommended goals for diabetes care.”
“The antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is a severe autoimmune disease associated with recurrent thrombosis and fetal loss and characterized by the presence of circulating autoantibodies (aAbs) mainly recognizing the N-terminal domain (DmI) of beta 2-glycoprotein I (beta 2GpI). To possibly block anti-beta 2GpI Abs activity, we synthesized the entire DmI comprising Selleck Anlotinib residues 1-64 of beta 2GpI by chemical methods. Oxidative disulfide renaturation of DmI was achieved in the presence of reduced and oxidized

glutathione. The folded DmI (N-DmI) was purified by RP-HPLC, and its chemical identity and correct disulfide pairing (Cys4-Cys47 and Cys32-Cys60) were established by enzymatic peptide mass fingerprint analysis. The results of the conformational characterization, conducted by far- and near-UV CD and fluorescence spectroscopy, provided strong evidence for the native-like structure of DmI, which is also quite resistant to both Gdn-HCI and thermal learn more denaturation. However, the thermodynamic stability of N-DmI at 37 C was remarkably low, in agreement with the unfolding CH5183284 energetics of small proteins. Of note, aAbs failed to bind to plates coated with N-DmI in direct binding experiments. From ELISA competition experiments with plate-immobilized beta 2GpI, a mean IC(50) value of 8.8 mu M could be estimated for N-DmI, similar to that of the full-length protein, IC(50)(beta 2GpI) = 6.4 mu M, whereas the cysteine-reduced and carboxamidomethylated DmI, RC-DmI, failed to bind to anti-beta 2GpI Abs. The versatility of chemical synthesis was also exploited

to produce an N-terminally biotin-(PEG)(2)-derivative of N-DmI (Biotin-N-DmI) to be possibly used as a new tool in APS diagnosis. Strikingly, Biotin-N-DmI loaded onto a streptavidin-coated plate selectively recognized aAbs from APS patients.”
“An otherwise healthy 55-year-old man reports that he has been itchy all over for 6 months. The itch interferes with falling asleep and wakes him repeatedly during the night. Initially, there was no rash, but during the past 4 months, itchy nodules and plaques have developed on his back, arms, and legs. Treatment with sedating and nonsedating oral antihistamines and topical glucocorticoids has had no effect. How would you evaluate and manage this case?”
“An array of genetic screens and selections has been developed for reporting protein folding and solubility in the cytoplasm of living cells.

05) compared with those not undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass and a 2-fold increase in aquaporin 1 mRNA expression (P<.05) compared with those not undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass and those undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass without aortic crossclamping.

Conclusions: A temporal association between hemodynamic dysfunction, myocardial

edema, and increased aquaporin 1 expression was demonstrated. Cardiopulmonary bypass without ischemia NSC23766 mouse was associated with minimal edema, negligible myocardial dysfunction, and static aquaporin expression. Ischemic reperfusion injury is the main cause of myocardial edema and myocardial dysfunction, but a causal relationship between edema and dysfunction remains to be proved.”
“Objectives: The aim of this retrospective study was an analysis of antidepressant-induced mood conversions to mania/hypomania occurring in bipolar inpatients treated with antidepressants in the Affective Disorder Unit of the Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Warsaw, in the years 1972-1996. Methods: The data for analysis were obtained retrospectively from clinical records. In a subgroup of patients prone to mood conversions, a comparison was done of depressive episodes treated with antidepressants with and without a switch to mania/hypomania as well as the frequency of mood conversions induced by particular antidepressant drugs, especially tricyclic (TCA) versus

non-TCA drugs. Results: Among 333 bipolar patients hospitalized in this period, mood conversions were observed in 118 subjects, significantly more frequently in female (44%) than in male patients (25%), JQ-EZ-05 in vitro and in patients with depressive episode at the onset of illness

(80 vs. 40%). Among mood converters, it was found that the depressive episodes with a switch to mania were less severe, shorter, and with shorter duration of antidepressant treatment. The risk of switching was PI3K inhibitor higher during treatment with TCA than with non-TCA drugs (36 vs. 17%), the highest with amitriptyline (42% of treated episodes), imipramine (40%) and clomipramine (35%). Conclusions: Our results suggest that bipolar patients prone to mood conversion constitute one third of the inpatient population with this illness. The switch from depression to mania occurred significantly more frequently during treatment with TCA than with non-TCA drugs. It is hypothesized that anticholinergic activity may contribute to the higher frequency of TCA-induced mood conversions. Copyright (C) 2009 S. Karger AG, Basel”
“Objective: Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury remains a vexing problem. Translating experimental strategies that deliver protective agents before the ischemic insult limits clinical applicability. We targeted 2 proteins in the nuclear factor-kappa B pathway, inhibitory kappa B kinase-beta, and 26S cardiac proteasome to determine their cardioprotective effects when delivered during reperfusion.

Conclusions

Crizotinib is superior

to standard chemotherapy in patients with previously treated, advanced non-small-cell lung cancer with ALK rearrangement.”
“Structural characterization of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) is mandatory for deciphering their potential unique physical and biological properties. A large number of circular dichroism (CD) studies have demonstrated that a structural change takes place in IDPs with increasing selleckchem temperature, which most likely reflects formation of transient alpha-helices or loss of polyproline II (PPII) content. Using three IDPs, ACTR, NHE1, and Spd1, we show that the temperature-induced structural change is common among IDPs and is accompanied by a contraction of the conformational ensemble. This phenomenon was explored at residue resolution by multidimensional NMR spectroscopy. Intrinsic chemical shift referencing allowed us to identify regions of transiently formed helices and their temperature-dependent changes in helicity. All helical regions were found to lose rather than gain helical structures with increasing temperature, and accordingly these were not responsible for the change in the CD spectra. In contrast, the nonhelical regions exhibited a general temperature-dependent structural change SP600125 ic50 that was independent of long-range interactions. The temperature-dependent CD spectroscopic

signature of IDPs that has been amply documented can be rationalized Ilomastat cell line to represent redistribution of the statistical coil involving a general loss of PPII conformations.”
“Simian immunodeficiency viruses infecting western lowland gorillas (SIVgor) are closely related to HIV-1 and are most likely the ancestors of HIV-1 groups 0 and P. At present, limited data are available on genetic diversity, transmission, viral evolution, and pathogenicity of SIVgor in its natural host. Between 2004 and 2011, 961 putative gorilla fecal samples were collected at the Campo Ma’an National Park, Cameroon.

Among them, 16% cross-reacted with HIV-1 antibodies, corresponding to at least 34 infected gorillas. Combining host genotyping and field data, we identified four social groups composed of 7 to 15 individuals each, with Sly rates ranging from 13% to 29%. Eleven SIVgor-infected gorillas were sampled multiple times; two most likely seroconverted during the study period, showing that SIVgor continues to spread. Phylogenetic analysis of partial env and pol sequences revealed cocirculation of closely related and divergent strains among gorillas from the same social group, indicating SIVgor transmissions within and between groups. Parental links could be inferred for some gorillas infected with closely related strains, suggesting vertical transmission, but horizontal transmission by sexual or aggressive behavior was also suspected.

Moreover, in very old patients, the accumulation

of % CST may impair intracellular zinc homeostasis and metallothioneins expression, which itself is linked to an increased number of inflammatory agents, thereby suggesting the existence of a possible causal relationship between % CST and zinc homeostasis. The determination of % CST could be a more reliable means than the simple measure of telomere length as fundamental parameter in ageing to determine whether individuals are still able to respond to stress.”
“Telomeres in somatic cells become shorter with aging, and the shortening is accelerated by pathophysiological conditions. Telomere shortening can be influenced by subtelomeric DNA selleck methylation. The telomere length and subtelomeric methylation status in peripheral leukocytes were compared in healthy controls and sarcoidosis patients. The sarcoidosis patients revealed shorter telomeres and a faster attrition of telomere shortening in comparison with healthy controls. Both healthy controls

and sarcoidosis patients showed that long telomeres (> 9.4 kb) decrease and short telomeres (< 4.4 kb) increase with aging, accompanying relative increases of long telomeres with subtelomeric hypermethylation and short telomeres with subtelomeric hypomethylation. This suggested that the aging-related telomere shortening is associated with the surrounding subtelomeric https://www.selleckchem.com/products/lee011.html hypomethylation. Furthermore, sarcoidosis patients showed this alteration of the subtelomeric

methylation earlier than controls (in their 60s or later). This altered subtelomeric hypomethylation may correspond to the accelerated telomere shortening in sarcoidosis. This also means that the subtelomeric hypomethylation can be also influenced by certain disease conditions.”
“This study compared measures of chronic Trichostatin A research buy pain, for example, number of pain sites and overall pain severity, in relation to lower extremity function in the older population.

Six hundred older adults (mean age 77.9 years, 64% female) were queried about presence of chronic pain. Number of pain sites was categorized as none, single site, multisite, or widespread. Pain severity was measured in quartiles of the Brief Pain Inventory pain severity subscale. Lower extremity function was assessed by the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB), a composite measure of gait speed, balance, and chair stands.

Many older persons reported multisite or widespread pain (40%). Increased pain sites and pain severity were associated with poorer SPPB performance after adjusting for age, sex, height, and weight. With further adjustment for education, comorbid conditions, and depressive symptoms, multisite pain (p < .001) and most severe pain (p < .05) were associated with poorer SPPB performance, but assessed together in the same model, only the association with multisite/widespread pain remained significant (p < .01).

Conclusions: It is not logical to lower the prostate specific antigen threshold based on only the hemodilution effect since body mass index related prostate volume enlargement can increase prostate specific antigen in obese men. Another tool is needed and prostate specific antigen mass ratio may be an option.”
“Purpose: The effect of statin medication use on the risk of prostate cancer is unknown.

Materials and Methods: We examined data from a longitudinal, population based cohort of 2,447 men between 40 and 79 years old who were followed from 1990 to 2007. Information on statin mTOR inhibitor use was self-reported and obtained by biennial questionnaires. A randomly

selected subset of men (634, 26%) completed biennial urological examinations that included serum prostate specific antigen measurements. Information on prostate biopsy and prostate cancer was obtained through review of community medical records.

Results: Of 634 statin users 38 (6%) were diagnosed with prostate cancer vs 186 (10%) of 1,813 nonstatin users. Statin use was associated with a decreased risk of undergoing prostate biopsy (HR 0.31; 95% CI 0.24, 0.40), receiving a prostate cancer diagnosis (HR 0.36; 95% CI 0.25, 0.53) and receiving a high grade (Gleason 7 or greater) prostate cancer diagnosis (HR 0.25; 95% CI 0.11, 0.58). Statin use was also associated with a nonsignificantly decreased risk of exceeding

a prostate specific antigen threshold of 4.0 ng/ml (HR 0.63; 95% CI 0,35, 1.13). In addition, a longer duration of statin use was associated with a lower risk of these outcomes (all tests for trend p <0.05).

Conclusions:

www.selleckchem.com/products/crt0066101.html Statin use is associated with a decreased risk of prostate cancer diagnosis. This association may be explained by decreased detection or cancer prevention.”
“Purpose: Five genetic variants along chromosomes 8q24 and 17q have a cumulative association with prostate cancer risk. Our research group previously reported an association between these variants and clinicopathological characteristics. More recently 4 additional prostate cancer susceptibility variants were identified on chromosomes 2p15, 10q11, 11q13 and Xp11. We performed Selleckchem Quizartinib cumulative risk assessment incorporating all 9 genetic variants and determined the relationship of the new variants to clinicopathological tumor features.

Materials and Methods: The genotype of 9 variants was determined in 687 men of European ancestry who underwent radical prostatectomy from 2002 to 2008 and in 777 healthy volunteer controls. We compared the incidence of these variants in prostate cancer cases and controls, and assessed their cumulative risk. We also determined the relationship of carrier status for the 4 new variants and clinicopathological tumor features.

Results: Prostate cancer cases had an increased incidence of all 9 risk variants compared to controls.

Allocation was by block randomisation stratified

Rabusertib by Centre and time from unprotected sexual intercourse to treatment, with allocation concealment by identical opaque boxes labelled with a unique treatment number. participants were masked to treatment assignment whereas investigators were not. Follow-up was done 5-7 days after expected onset of next menses. The primary endpoint was pregnancy rate in women who received emergency contraception within 72 h of unprotected sexual intercourse, with a non-inferiority margin of 1% point difference between groups (limit of 1.6 for odds ratio). Analysis was done on the efficacy-evaluable population, which excluded women lost to follow-up, those aged over 35 years, women with unknown

follow-up pregnancy status, and those who had re-enrolled in the study. Additionally, we undertook a meta-analysis of our BGJ398 ic50 trial and an earlier study to assess the efficacy of ulipristal acetate compared with levonorgestrel. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00551616.

Findings In the efficacy-evaluable population, 1696 women received emergency contraception within 72 h of sexual intercourse (ulipristal acetate, n=844; levonorgestrel, n=852). There were 15 pregnancies in the ulipristal acetate group (1.8%, 95% CI 1.0-3.0) and 22 in the levonorgestrel group (2.6%, 1.7-3.9; odds ratio [OR] 0.68, 95% CI 0.35-1.31). In 203 women who received emergency contraception between 72 In and 120 h after sexual intercourse, there were three pregnancies, all of which were in the levonorgestrel group. The most frequent adverse PF299804 clinical trial event was headache (ulipristal acetate, 213 events [19.3%] in 1104 women; levonorgestrel, 211 events [18.9%] in 1117 women). Two serious adverse events were judged possibly related to use of emergency contraception; a case of dizziness in the ulipristal acetate group and a molar pregnancy in the levonorgestrel group. In the meta-analysis

(0-72 h), there were 22 (1.4%) pregnancies in 1617 women in the ulipristal acetate group and 35 (2.2%) in 1625 women in the levonorgestrel group (OR 0.58, 0.33-0.99; p=0.046).

Interpretation Ulipristal acetate provides women and health-care providers with an effective alternative for emergency contraception that can be used up to 5 days after unprotected sexual intercourse.

Funding HRA Pharma.”
“5-HT1A receptors mediate some effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs, such as the increase in cortical dopaminergic function, an effect likely related to the superior efficacy of these drugs on negative symptoms and cognitive deficits of schizophrenia. To examine whether 5-HT1A receptors are involved in the therapeutic action of clozapine (Clz) on positive symptoms, here we examined the ability of Clz to antagonize the behavioural syndrome induced by the non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, MK-801 in wild-type (WT) and 5-HT1A-receptor knockout (KO1A) mice.

However, the antibody response was HK03 strain specific and did not significantly cross-neutralize VN04 virus. A second approach was taken to adapt the H5N1 VN04 ca virus in MDCK cells to select HA variants with larger plaque morphology. Although a number of large-plaque-size

HA variants with amino acid changes in the HA receptor binding region were identified, none of these mutations affected virus receptor binding preference and immunogenicity. In addition, the known receptor binding site changes, Q226L E7080 purchase and G228S, were introduced into the HA protein of the VN04 ca virus. Only in conjunction with the removal of the 158N glycosylation did the virus replicate efficiently in the upper respiratory tract of ferrets and became more immunogenic, yet the response was also HK03 specific. Thus, the mask of the antigenic epitopes by 158N glycosylation at the HA globular head and its alpha 2,3SAL binding preference of VN04 ca virus affect virus antigenicity and replication in the host, resulting in a lower antibody response.”
“Translation Tozasertib in vitro initiation site usage on the human rhinovirus 2 internal ribosome entry site (IRES) has been examined in a mixed reticulocyte lysate/HeLa cell extract system. There are two relevant AUG triplets, both in a base-paired

hairpin structure (domain VI), with one on the 5′ side at nucleotide (nt) 576, base buy Birinapant paired with the other at nt 611, which is the initiation site for polyprotein synthesis. A single residue was inserted in the apical loop to put AUG-576 in frame with AUG-611, and

in addition another in-frame AUG was introduced at nt 593. When most of the IRES was deleted to generate a monocistronic mRNA, the use of these AUGs conformed to the scanning ribosome model: improving the AUG-576 context increased initiation at this site and decreased initiation at downstream sites, whereas the converse was seen when AUG-576 was mutated to GUA; and AUG-593, when present, took complete precedence over AUG-611. Under IRES-dependent conditions, by contrast, much less initiation occurred at AUG-576 than in a monocistronic mRNA with the same AUG-576 context, mutation of AUG-576 decreased initiation at downstream sites by similar to 70%, and introduction of AUG-593 did not completely abrogate initiation at AUG-611, unless the apical base pairing in domain VI was destroyed by point mutations. These results indicate that ribosomes first bind at the AUG-576 site, but instead of initiating there, most of them are transferred to AUG-611, the majority by strictly linear scanning and a substantial minority by direct transfer, which is possibly facilitated by the occasional persistence of base pairing in the apical part of the domain VI stem.

97), which has been linked to statin metabolism. The

prevalence of the rs4149056 C allele in the population was 15%. The odds ratio for myopathy was 4.5 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.6 to 7.7) per copy of the C allele, and 16.9 (95% CI, 4.7 to 61.1) in CC as compared with TT homozygotes. More than 60% of these myopathy cases could be attributed to the C variant. The association of rs4149056 with myopathy was replicated in the trial of 40 mg of simvastatin daily, which also showed an association between rs4149056 and the cholesterol-lowering effects of simvastatin. No SNPs in any other region were clearly associated CH5183284 ic50 with myopathy.

Conclusions: We have identified common variants in SLCO1B1 that are strongly associated with an increased risk of statin-induced myopathy. Genotyping JAK inhibitor these variants may help to achieve the benefits of statin therapy more safely and effectively. (Current Controlled Trials number, ISRCTN74348595.).”
“Background Any benefit of adjuvant interferon alfa-2b for melanoma could depend on dose and duration of treatment. Our aim was to determine whether pegylated interferon alfa-2b can facilitate prolonged exposure while maintaining tolerability.

Methods 1256 patients with resected stage III melanoma were randomly assigned to observation (n=629) or pegylated interferon alfa-2b (n=627) 6 pg/kg per week for 8 weeks (induction) then 3 pg/kg per week (maintenance)

for an intended duration of 5 years. Tryptophan synthase Randomisation was stratified for microscopic (N1) versus macroscopic (N2) nodal involvement, number of positive nodes, ulceration and tumour thickness, sex, and Centre. Randomisation was done with a minimisation technique. The primary endpoint was recurrence-free survival. Analyses

were done by intention to treat. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00006249.

Findings All randomised patients were included in the primary efficacy analysis. 608 patients in the interferon group and 613 patients in the observation group were included in safety analyses. The median length of treatment with pegylated interferon alfa-2b was 12 (IQR 3.8-33-4) months. At 3.8 (3.2-4.2) years median follow-up, 328 recurrence events had occurred in the interferon group compared with 368 in the observation group (hazard ratio 0 . 82, 95% CI 0 . 71-0.96; p=0 . 01); the 4-year rate of recurrence-free survival was 45.6% (SE 2.2) in the interferon group and 38.9% (2.2) in the observation group. There was no difference in overall survival between the groups. Grade 3 adverse events occurred in 246 (40%) patients in the interferon group and 60 (10%) in the observation group; grade 4 adverse events occurred in 32 (5%) patients in the interferon group and 14 (2%) in the observation group. In the interferon group, the most common grade 3 or 4 adverse events were fatigue (97 patients, 16%), hepatotoxicity (66, 11%), and depression (39, 6%). Treatment with pegylated interferon alfa-2b was discontinued because of toxicity in 191 (31%) patients.

The risk of pregnancy and neonatal complications in women with PCOS is debatable. Liproxstatin-1 mw In order to determine the risk of pregnancy and neonatal complications, evidence regarding these risks was examined.

Methods: Literature searches were performed in the electronic databases MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CENTRAL based on the established strategy and eligible tries were included according to inclusion and exclusion criteria. A systematic literature review looking at rates of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), pregnancy-induced hypertension

(PIH), preeclampsia, premature delivery, neonatal birth weight, caesarean section and admission to a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) was conducted in women with PCOS. Pregnancy outcomes between women with PCOS versus controls were included. Sensitivity analyses were performed to determine the reliability of the available

evidence and to validate the results. The study was performed with the approval of the ethics committee of the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University.

Results: A total of 27studies, involving 4982 women with PCOS and 119692 controls were eligible for the meta-analysis. Women with PCOS demonstrated a significantly higher risk of developing GDM (OR3.43; 95% CI: 2.49-4.74), PIH (OR3.43; 95% CI: 2.49-4.74), preeclampsia (OR2.17; 95% CI: 1.91-2.46), preterm birth (OR1.93; 95% CI: 1.45-2.57), caesarean section (OR 1.74; 95% CI: 1.38-2.11) compared to controls. Their babies had a marginally check details ZD1839 significant lower birth weight (WMD -0.11g; 95% CI: -0.19 – -0.03), and higher risk of admission to NICU (OR 2.32; 95% CI: 1.40-3.85) compared to controls.

Conclusions: Women with PCOS have increased risk of adverse pregnancy and neonatal complications. It is necessary to establish guidelines for supervision during pregnancy and parturition to prevent these complications.”
“Combination antiretroviral therapy, despite being potent and life-prolonging, is not curative and does not eradicate HIV-1 infection since interruption of treatment inevitably results in a rapid rebound of viremia. Reactivation of latently infected cells harboring transcriptionally silent but replication-competent

proviruses is a potential source of persistent residual viremia in cART-treated patients. Although multiple reservoirs may exist, the persistence of resting CD4+ T cells carrying a latent infection represents a major barrier to eradication. In this review, we will discuss the latest reports on the molecular mechanisms that may regulate HIV-1 latency at the transcriptional level, including transcriptional interference, the role of cellular factors, chromatin organization and epigenetic modifications, the viral Tat trans-activator and its cellular cofactors. Since latency mechanisms may also operate at the post-transcriptional level, we will consider inhibition of nuclear RNA export and inhibition of translation by microRNAs as potential barriers to HIV-1 gene expression.