Compared with aluminium salts, a stronger immune response, eg higher

antibody and T-cell response, is elicited ( Seubert et al., 2008). MF59™ is present in licensed seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccines ( Table 4.1). It enhances immune responses in the elderly population and can facilitate immune responses against specific drift variants of the seasonal influenza virus not included in the vaccine. MF59™ demonstrated how an adjuvant can improve the immune response to a classical vaccine in a challenging population, such as the elderly, which is affected by immune senescence ( Podda, 2001). Clinical studies with an MF59™-adjuvanted pandemic influenza vaccine showed antigen-sparing learn more abilities, and for the H5N1 vaccine, the induction of some cross-reactivity versus different viral clades ( Banzhoff et al., 2009). The induction of cross-reactive immunity against drifted strains may be very important during a pandemic, as it is very likely that the emerging virus will continue to mutate as the pandemic proceeds. A thermo-reversible oil-in-water emulsion containing squalene, emulsified with surfactants, is present in the formulation of an H1N1 pandemic influenza vaccine which was licensed in Europe in 2010 (Table 4.1). The mechanism of action has not yet been selleck compound reported. Well-known adjuvants, such as aluminium salts, oil-in-water emulsions

or liposomes, are combined with other compounds which act as immuno-enhancers to better modulate and guide specific components of the immune system aiming to achieve the desired immune response. The more complex formulations, comprising three or more adjuvant components, are designed in particular to induce more potent cellular immune responses (see Chapter 2 – Vaccine immunology). The first example of a combination of adjuvants is the Adjuvant System (AS) 04 (AS04), which is based on a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) derivative, monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) and aluminium salts ( Figure 4.7). LPS, derived from Gram-negative bacteria, is a potent immunostimulant and a specific TLR4 agonist. MPL is

obtained by mild hydrolysis and further purification of LPS derived from Salmonella minnesota. The product has similar immunostimulatory properties to LPS, but lacks the reactogenicity G protein-coupled receptor kinase of native LPS. In AS04, MPL is adsorbed onto aluminium hydroxide or aluminium phosphate, depending on the vaccine with which it is used. In AS04, MPL plays a crucial role in the activation of the innate immune system. Direct stimulation of TLR4 leads to the maturation of APCs, inducing the expression of cytokines that in turn enhance the adaptive immune response by stimulating the maturation of Th cells, in particular Th1. Therefore, recognition of MPL by TLR4 leads to enhanced humoral and cellular immune responses. AS04 has to be administered at the same injection site as the antigen – together or within 24 h – to exert its effect.