Although this particular result requires further confirmation, it highlights the exciting potential of regimes combining viral vectors and recombinant proteins to induce protection against an immunologically challenging target. In the malaria field, such approaches have been less thoroughly explored. Results of efforts to combine viral vectors encoding the pre-erythrocytic antigen circumsporozoite protein (CSP) with the leading CSP-based vaccine RTS,S (a non-vectored recombinant virus-like particle) have been mixed. A phase I/IIa clinical trial of modified vaccinia virus

Ankara (MVA)-CSP XL184 prime with RTS,S boost did not enhance immunogenicity or protection beyond that achieved by RTS,S alone [19],

in contrast to encouraging pre-clinical observations on the combination of MVA with hepatitis B surface antigen or Plasmodium berghei CSP proteins [20] and [21]. More recently, a macaque study using an adenovirus vectored-CSP prime and RTS,S boost significantly improved CD4+ T cell immunogenicity compared to the individual vaccines used alone, but did not enhance antibody responses above those seen with RTS,S [22]. Merozoite surface protein 1 (MSP1) is a leading candidate antigen for use in subunit vaccination against blood-stage P. falciparum, with numerous MSP1-based vaccines under development [2] and [23]. Vaccination with recombinant MSP1 can protect mice against AZD6244 manufacturer Plasmodium yoelii challenge and Aotus monkeys against P. falciparum [24] and [25]. It is generally thought that the principal mechanism of MSP1-induced immunity is blockade Calpain of erythrocyte invasion by antibodies to the C-terminal MSP119 moiety, though it has also been demonstrated that antibodies can arrest growth at a stage after

erythrocyte invasion [26]. Antibodies against MSP119 are responsible for a substantial proportion of the in vitro growth inhibitory activity of serum from individuals in P. falciparum endemic areas [27]. In addition to antibody, CD8+ T cell responses to MSP1 can provide partial protective efficacy against late liver-stage P. yoelii parasites [6] and [28], and CD4+ T cells specific to P. yoelii MSP133 can confer protection against blood-stage infection when adoptively transferred into mice in the absence of antibodies [29]. Protection in humans against P. falciparum following whole-parasite immunization with both sporozoites and blood-stage parasites has been associated with T cell responses against blood-stage parasites, although drug persistence casts some doubt upon the results of the latter study [30], [31] and [32]. In contrast, despite considerable effort and promising antibody induction, protein-based subunit vaccines have so far failed to induce substantial protection against blood-stage P. falciparum [2].